Deep Ocean Discovery

Have you ever wondered about the deep waters of the ocean and the creatures that inhabit them? Have you ever thought about the composition of that vast unknown environment? The deep waters of the ocean are defined in a very unique way. Also, deep oceans are explored using various technologies. Information on the many creatures that inhabit these deep waters of the ocean is scarce and continually changing.


In definition, the deep ocean is "any place away from coasts and beyond the continental shelves where the seafloor drops away to extreme depths". The ocean has two main sections, which are the surface layer and deep waters. In between the surface waters and deep waters, there is a region called the pycnocline. Pycnocline means rapid change of density. The temperature of deep ocean waters is about 3 degrees Celsius. Majority of deep ocean water is created when surface water in the North Atlantic Ocean becomes so dense it sinks. It becomes dense enough to sink because of the cold temperature and high salinity level in the water.


Then currents direct the movement of this deep ocean water. Currents will cause the deep ocean water to flow past the equator and into the Southern Hemisphere. Next, this deep ocean water will flow past Antarctica and into the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. In these destinations, some of the deep ocean water is transformed back into surface water. This occurs because the water's temperature increases until it decreases in density, which allows the water to rise to the surface. This "cycle of ocean water circulation" is referred to as "conveyor belt cycling" and is considered a simplified version of "real global ocean circulation".

Throughout decades of investigation, less than ten percent of the deep ocean has been explored. Even though the deep ocean realm is considered to be the largest habitat for life on Earth, there are still many "sea monsters" or deep ocean inhabitants yet to be discovered. Cryptosaras couesi or angler fish is one of the most commonly discussed deep ocean creatures. Another creature, which is characterized by its huge mouth, is the Eurypharynx pelecanoides. This is otherwise known as the "umbrella mouth gulper" or the pelican eel and commonly inhabits oceans at depths exceeding 6,500 feet. A discovered creature that has never been photographed in its natural deep ocean habitat is the viper fish or Chauliodus sloani. These deep ocean creatures are discovered by different methods of discovery.

Deep ocean discoveries are made possible through the use of vessels, submersibles, diving, and observation tools. Vessels are commonly referred to as "the most critical element in any oceangoing exploration". Vessels are sophisticated "mobile research platforms" and are equipped with submersibles, divers, and observation tools. Submersibles are designed to descend to ocean floor, which allows firsthand exploration of the deep oceans. Diving allows explorers to research underwater for hours with the use of the "aqua lung". Observation tools also aid scientists in learning about the underwater world because they are the means by which the most information can be gathered about the ocean.

The deep waters of the ocean are a curiosity to many people. Even though the ocean covers a vast majority of our planet and has been explored for many decades, there is still so much to uncover. As technology continues to advance, more information about the deep waters of the ocean will be known. Therefore the information about the creatures that dwell in the deep ocean waters will also be more prevalent.

The Big Bang: "Origin of the Universe"

Have you ever wondered how everything came into being? How was this universe and all that is encompassed in it created? Did everything just appear or was it a result of a higher power? Was evolution prevalent in the universe's creation? Many theories have been created in an attempt to explain the birth of the universe. Some theories are purely based on science, while others are based on beliefs and religion. The theories created by astrophysicists strongly differ from religion based theories.

The first theory used in attempt to describe the creation of the universe is the "steady state theory of cosmology". This theory suggests that the universe "simply exists without changing with time". Since there is little evidence to support this theory, many astrophysicists disregard this explanation. It is evident that the universe expands and even though expansion can be explained in a "steady state universe", this theory is highly disregarded for this reason among many others. Majority of the time, the "steady state theory of cosmology" is included for historical purposes only due to its lack of credibility. The next theory used in attempt to explain the creation of universe is the most commonly accepted, which is known as the Big Bang theory.

The Big Bang theory postulates that our universe was non-existent until about 12 to 14 million years ago. Astrophysicists claim that vacuum fluctuation caused the creation of a singularity. This singularity became our universe. At the very beginning of the universe, there was an incredibly large presence of energy. This form of energy is known as photons. Photons transformed into quarks, which are postulated as the smallest particles in existence. Quarks then formed neutrons and protons. Eventually, Hydrogen, Helium, and Lithium nuclei were formed and this process of formation is known as big bang nucleosynthesis. Cosmic Microwave Background is a prediction about the photons that remained after the big bang. The Big Bang theory's name is derived from the "tremendous explosion" that started the universe. This theory's origin is credited to Edwin Hubble. His observations provided the foundation for the Big Bang theory.

The Big Bang theory led to the inflation theory. The inflation theory is considered a "possible explanation that right after the big bang the universe began a period of exaggerated outward expansion, with particles flying outward faster than the current speed of light". This theory is "advocated" among astrophysicists, but it is not "directly verifiable" and has no clear cut evidence. The theory of inflation is used as an explanation for a phenomenon and is not a theory proven by a phenomenon. Could that mean that the inflation theory is pseudoscience?

There is contradicting information about the origin of our universe when religion is added to the equation. According to religion, the world was created by god or a higher power. In religious theories, God created the universe and everything in it. God created man, earth, animals, stars, and everything else. Is it possible that both groups have valid reasoning? Is it possible that both theories can be intertwined? Is it possible that a higher power created the photons that were allegedly responsible for the birth of our universe? Then perhaps, the real question is how was that higher power created? The origin of the universe can be hypothesized, but will we ever know the truth when science and religion are both factored into everything?

Comparison of Solar Systems & Galaxies

There are many solar systems in existence, perhaps even more that have yet to be discovered. A solar system is a group of celestial bodies orbiting a central star. The most commonly discussed solar system is the one we inhabit. "Our" solar system consists of eight official planets, at least three dwarf planets, many satellites, comets, asteroids, and the interplanetary medium; all of which revolve around the Sun. The Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars comprise the inner solar system. The outer solar system includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto was included in this region, but is now considered a dwarf planet.

The solar system is mostly comprised of empty space. The space between the planets is massive in comparison to the size of the planets. The planets orbit in ellipses. Mercury is the only planet with an elliptical path that is not nearly circular, but the rest are considered nearly circular. The "elliptical" is the plane in which all of the planets' orbits lie. the main asteroid belt of the solar system lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Solar systems are one of the main components in a galaxy, which explains why solar systems are so much smaller.

Galaxies are vast collections of solar systems, dust, gas, and countless stars. Galaxies rotate about a cluster of stars rather than a central star. There are more than 100 billion galaxies in the "observable universe" alone. The galaxy that is considered to be "our" galaxy is known as the Milky Way galaxy. "Small galaxies" are galaxies with less than a billion stars. There are three main galaxy classification, which are spiral, elliptical, and irregular galaxies. Spiral galaxies consist of "a flat disc with a bulging center and surrounding spiral arms". The galaxy's disc rotates around the "galactic center" in a regular pattern. One example of the spiral galaxy is the Milky Way. Elliptical galaxies are shaped as ellipses. Most stars in elliptical galaxies contain older star. Irregular galaxies are all the left-over galaxy variations that cannot be classified as an elliptical galaxies or spiral galaxies. It is theoretically stated that galaxies formed shortly after a cosmic "big bang".

While researching, I found it interesting that solar systems are mostly left without a name, but quite a few galaxies are given a name. I also found it intriguing that there are so many galaxies in existence that we do not even have a number large enough to say how many there are. It is also interesting that some scientists believe that galaxies start as globular clusters and transform into galaxies later. Solar systems and galaxies are a topic with a vast amount of information discovered, yet there may still be something left to find out.

Red Giants, White Dwarfs, the Sun, & Black Holes

A Red Giant is defined as a "large, old, luminous star; that has a relatively low surface temperature and a diameter large relative to the sun" by the American Heritage Science dictionary. A red giant's creation originates when the hydrogen in a star is converted into helium. This conversion produces light and other radiation. The heavier helium created "sinks" toward the center of the star and a "shell" of hydrogen is formed around the helium cluster. At this point, the star does not generate a sufficient amount of energy and pressure; which is necessary to support the outer layers of the star, because of the hydrogen depletion. The star then collapses and the star's temperature and pressure levels rise until the helium core can "fuse" into carbon. This causes the helium to burn and radiate energy. At this point, the star transforms into a Red Giant. Red Giants are mostly formed from a main sequence star. Therefore, our sun will become a red giant during its lifetime. Red Giants characteristically have a surface temperature of 2,500 to 3,500 degrees Celsius. Red Giants also have a diameter between 10 and 100 times larger than the Sun's diameter. The masses of Red Giants vary greatly. Red Giants that are formed from the most massive of stars are considered to be Red Supergiants. Red Giants are also believed to "pulsate" and are considered variable.

A White Dwarf star is what stars become after they have "exhausted" their supply of nuclear fuel. White Dwarf stars are formed from planetary nebulae, which are formed from Red Giants. After a star has undergone the planetary nebula stage, only the hot core of the star remains present, which leaves the star as a "young" White Dwarf. This "young" White Dwarf will continue its cooling process over a period of a couple billion years. White Dwarfs are detected as low-energy x-ray sources. White Dwarfs are normally half as massive as the Sun, but a small amount larger than the Earth. White Dwarfs are one of the densest "forms of matter". White Dwarfs are known to survive because of quantum mechanical principles and not internal fusion. Also, as a White Dwarf's mass increases, its size decreases. Therefore, its mass and size are inversely proportional.

Our Sun is known as a main sequence star. Therefore, the Sun will become a Red Giant. Then the Sun will transform into a planetary nebula and finally meet its fate when it becomes a White Dwarf. The Sun's diameter is 1,390,000 kilometers. The Sun is known to contain approximately 99.8% of the Solar System's total mass. The core of the Sun is approximately 15,600,000 degrees Kelvin and its surface is 5,800 degress Kelvin. Since the Sun is not a "solid body" it exhibits "differential rotation", which causes the Sun to rotate slower near its poles. The surface of the Sun is called the photosphere, which lies below the chromosphere. Above the chromosphere, there is a region known as the corona, which is only visible during a total solar eclipse. The Sun has "cool regions" that look darker compared to its surrounding areas. These "cool regions" are called sunspots and are a result of "interactions", which are not yet understood, with the Sun's magnetic field. If the Sun was not a main sequence star and was a massive star instead, then the Sun's fate would be to result in a black hole.

Black holes are "objects so dense that not even light can escape their gravity", which means that nothing can exit a black hole. In the time of Newton, scientists hypothesized that a an object like a black hole could exist, but Einstein's Theory of Relativity "more accurately describes" this phenomenon. Black holes are formed as a result of supernova explosions. It is claimed that black holes are produced as a Red Supergiant collapses. Some scientists who specialize in black hole research are Karl Schwarzchild, Jayant Narlikan, and Stephen Hawking. Since substantial evidence about black holes is limited, black holes continue to be a topic of interest and immense fascination.

~Lindsey~



Addition to this post:

Here is a link to a very good flow chart of a star's life cycle: http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es2807/es2807page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization.
This website is written by a textbook company so it should not be discredited by the fact that it is a ".com".

Below is an image of a star's developmental stages.


Image provided by http://www.tqnyc.org/NYC040808/stages_of_a_star.html.

Science Vs. Pseudoscience

Science is defined as "the investigation of natural phenomena through observation, theoretical explanation, and experimentation, or the knowledge produced by such investigation" by The American Heritage Science Dictionary. Science uses the scientific method as the basis in establishing scientific facts. In science, an observation is made and a hypothesis is formed pertaining to that observation. Then experiments are conducted to test the hypothesis. As a result, a hypothesis is then confirmed, modified, or discarded. Scientists consistently research the same topic for an extensive period of time before regarding a hypothesis as a scientific fact. Science studies reality and explores the physical world. There are many branches of science and even more categories within those branches. Science includes biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science. All of those branches are considered to be natural sciences.

Pseudoscience is considered to be "fake" science because "pseudo" in its language of origin means "false". Pseudoscience is also given derogatory nicknames such as junk science or bad science. Pseudoscience is a "set of ideas based on theories put forth as scientific when they are not scientific". Pseudoscience is based on hypotheses without research or evidence to support the claims. Many branches of "science" could even be considered pseudoscience depending on who you talk to and their beliefs or point of view. Some of these branches that can arguably be pseudoscience are social sciences (such as theology, methodology, and other studies of human behavior or society) and "Creation" science. Other examples of pseudoscience are psychic detectives, palm readings, horoscopes, astrology, therapeutic touch, homeopathy, chiropractics, channeling, and Unidentified Flying Objects(UFOs). Psychic detectives, palm readings, horoscopes, and astrology are all obviously pseudoscience because they deal with "spiritual" connections and not the physical world. Therapeutic touch, homeopathy, aromatherapy, craniometry, and other such "medical" pseudosciences are justly classified as such because they are not based on facts, but are based on selective use of anecdotes or intuition. Channeling is "a process whereby an individual (the "channeler") claims to have been invaded by a spirit entity which speaks through the channeler". This is commonly practiced by superstitious followers and is often done with the use of a children's toy, the Ouija Board, which clearly supports it is not real science. Chiropractics can be considered pseudoscience because the theory it revolves around is that "subluxations" or "blockages of nerves" in the back are the cause of the health problems, but neither the creator of chiropractics nor any chiropractor since has proved the existence of these "subluxations". Other pseudosciences include Quantum Physics and Graphology. Graphology is "the study of handwriting" and is used to estimate a person's personality or sometimes identify a person as guilty for a certain crime. How can graphology, which is clearly pseudoscience because there are always exceptions and does not have any substantial "empirical" evidence behind it, be used as a tool to find criminals? Pseudoscience is highly capitalized upon and is intertwined throughout our society.


I believe that many "fields" of science are actually pseudoscience because they don't have any proof to support their so-called facts. This also makes it hard to distinguish between science and pseudoscience and leads to controversy between people. Pseudoscience has been a part of society in the past, is a part of society today, and will continue to be part of society in the future. Some of the reason that pseudoscience is so prevalent in our society is because people want to have their beliefs even if they can't "see" something. One example is the belief people have in God. They can't see or know for certain of God's existence yet God is as prevalent as pseudoscience in our society considering U.S. currency states "in god we trust". Another example is the Pledge of Allegiance phrase "under god". So, does that mean that religion is another form of pseudoscience? Pseudoscience is also prevalent in society because of people craving something to give them hope whether it's hope about life on other planets, spiritual connections with those who have passed, or hope for answers to the unknown. Although, science and pseudoscience are different, they are easily confused sometimes and will always have to co-exist.

~Lindsey~